Past Tenses
1. Past Simple
Structure:
Affirmative: Subject + verb in past (second form of the verb)
I walked to school.
Negative: Subject + did not (didn’t) + verb in infinitive
She didn’t go to the party.
Interrogative: Did + subject + verb in infinitive
Did they watch the movie?
Usage:
Completed actions in the past.
Facts that occurred at a specific moment.
Past routines or habits (when ‘used to’ is not employed).
E.g.: I visited my grandma yesterday.
2. Past Continuous
Structure:
Affirmative: Subject + was/were + verb -ing
He was watching TV.
Usage:
Action in progress at a specific moment in the past.
Two simultaneous actions in the past.
Action in progress interrupted by another action (usually with Past Simple).
3. Past Perfect Simple
Structure:
Affirmative: Subject + had + past participle (third form of the verb)
She had finished the report.
Negative: Subject + had not (hadn’t) + past participle
We hadn’t seen the movie.
Interrogative: Had + subject + past participle
Had they arrived?
Usage:
Action completed before another action or moment in the past.
To provide context or explain a cause. E.g.: I had left when he arrived.
4. Past Perfect Continuous
Structure:
Affirmative: Subject + had been + verb -ing
They had been working all day.
Negative: Subject + had not been + verb -ing
She hadn’t been feeling well.
Interrogative: Had + subject + been + verb -ing
Had you been studying?
Usage:
Action that was ongoing for a period before another past event.
Emphasizes duration.
5. Used to vs. Would
Used to + Infinitive
For habits or repeated situations in the past that no longer occur.
Also for states (be, have, know, etc.).
E.g.: I used to live in Paris.
E.g.: She used to be shy.
Would + Infinitive
Also expresses past habits, but is not used with states.
More commonly used in narratives or to convey a nostalgic tone.
E.g.: Every summer, we would go to the beach.
Present Tenses
1. Present Simple vs. Present Continuous
Present Simple
Structure:
Affirmative: Subject + base verb (with -s for 3rd person singular)
E.g.: She works every day.
Usage:
Habits, routines, general facts, fixed schedules.
Present Continuous
Structure:
Affirmative: Subject + am/is/are + verb -ing
E.g.: She is working right now.
Usage:
Actions happening right now.
Pre-arranged future plans (see Future Tenses section).
Future Tenses
1. Different Forms of Future
Will + Infinitive
Structure: Subject + will + base verb
Usage:
Spontaneous decisions: “I’ll help you.”
Predictions without evidence: “It will rain.”
Promises, offers, threats.
Be Going To + Infinitive
Structure: Subject + am/is/are + going to + base verb
Usage:
Intentions or pre-decided plans.
Predictions with evidence: “Look at those clouds, it’s going to rain.”
Present Continuous for Future Meaning
Structure: Subject + am/is/are + verb -ing
Usage:
Personal plans already arranged or with a fixed date/time.
E.g.: I’m meeting Sarah at 6.
Present Simple for Future Meaning
Structure: Subject + verb in present simple
Usage:
Official schedules and programs (transport, events).
E.g.: The train leaves at 9 pm.
2. Future Continuous
Structure:
Subject + will be + verb -ing
E.g.: I will be studying at 8.
Usage:
Action in progress at a specific moment in the future.
To talk about actions that will certainly happen.
E.g.: This time tomorrow, I’ll be flying to London.
3. Future Perfect
Structure:
Subject + will have + past participle (3rd form)
E.g.: She will have finished the report by Friday.
Usage:
Action that will have been completed before a specific moment in the future.
E.g.: By 2026, I will have graduated.
Modal Verbs
1. Ability and Request
| Function | Modal Verb | Usage and Example |
|---|---|---|
| Ability (Present) | can | I can swim. |
| Ability (Past) | could | She could run fast when she was young. |
| Informal Request | can / could | Can you help me? / Could you open the window? |
| Formal Request | may | May I speak with you? |
2. Obligation, Prohibition, and Advice
| Function | Modal Verb | Usage and Example |
|---|---|---|
| Strong Obligation | must | You must wear a seatbelt. |
| External Obligation | have to | I have to work tomorrow. |
| Lack of Obligation | don’t have to / needn’t | You don’t have to come if you’re busy. |
| Prohibition | mustn’t / can’t | You mustn’t smoke here. |
| Advice | should / ought to | You should eat healthier. |
3. Possibility and Certainty
| Degree of Certainty | Modal Verb | Usage and Example |
|---|---|---|
| Possibility | may / might / could | She might be at home. |
| Impossibility | can’t / couldn’t | He can’t be 50! |
| High Affirmative Certainty | must | You must be tired. |
4. Modal Perfects
Form: modal + have + past participle (V3)
Used to talk about hypothetical past actions or to express criticism, deduction, or regret.
| Modal Perfect | Usage | Example |
|---|---|---|
| should have + V3 | Past Advice/Criticism | You should have studied more. |
| could have + V3 | Unused Past Ability or Possibility | I could have won the race. |
| would have + V3 | Action that would have occurred (conditional) | I would have helped you if I’d known. |
| might/may have + V3 | Past Possibility | She might have forgotten. |
| must have + V3 | High Past Certainty | He must have left already. |
| can’t have + V3 | Past Impossibility | They can’t have seen us. |
Conditional Sentences
English Conditionals
| Type | Structure | Usage | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| Zero | If + present simple, present simple | General truths, natural laws | If you heat water, it boils. |
| First | If + present simple, will + infinitive | Real or possible situations in the future | If it rains, we will stay home. |
| Second | If + past simple, would + infinitive | Hypothetical situations in the present/future | If I had money, I would travel. |
| Third | If + past perfect, would have + past participle | Hypothetical situations in the past | If she had studied, she would have passed. |
Relative Clauses
1. Relative Pronouns
Used to join sentences and provide more information about a noun.
| Pronoun | Reference | Example |
|---|---|---|
| who | People | The girl who called is my friend. |
| which | Things/Animals | The book which I read was great. |
| that | People or Things | The car that he drives is fast. |
| whose | Possession (People/Things) | The man whose phone rang is my boss. |
| whom | People (Formal, Object) | The man whom I saw was a doctor. (less common) |
2. Relative Adverbs
Add information about time, place, or reason.
| Adverb | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| where | Place | That’s the house where I was born. |
| when | Time | I remember the day when we met. |
| why | Reason | That’s the reason why I left. |